Exploring a Novel Approach to Study Self-Esteem in Children: An Implicit Model
Keywords:
self-esteem, implicit, developmental, childrenAbstract
Self-esteem, an important topic in behavioral research, refers to the positive or negative subjective evaluation of one’s self. Indeed, our feelings of self-worth influence a wide range of domains such as mental well-being, academic success and life satisfaction. Clearly, it is important to foster healthy self-esteem as early as possible in development by assessing the specific factors that promote positive self-esteem in childhood. Yet, this research in children has mostly employed an explicit approach and may not reflect an accurate representation of a child’s self-esteem. Here, I argue for the use of an implicit model in studying self-esteem in providing a more holistic approach. Specifically, I will outline some key weaknesses of a solely explicit model and the benefits of employing an implicit model to the study of children’s self-esteem. Specific methods that can be utilized to measure implicit self-esteem in children will also be discussed. Finally, I will provide possible future directions for the application of a holistic approach in order to investigate specific parental techniques and environmental factors that promote the healthy development of explicit and implicit self-esteem.
References
Antonopoulou, K., Alexopoulos, D. A., & Maridaki-Kassotaki, K. (2012). Perceptions of father parenting style, empathy, and self-esteem among greek preadolescents. Marriage & Family Review, 48(3), 293-309. doi:10.1080/01494929.2012.665016
Baron, A. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2006). The development of implicit attitudes: Evidence of race evaluations from ages 6 and 10 and adulthood. Psychological Science,17(1), 53-58. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01664.x
Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D. (2005). Exploding the self-esteem myth. New York: Scientific American, Incorporated. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0105-84
Chao, R. K. (1994). Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style: Understanding chinese parenting through the cultural notion of training. Child Development, 65(4), 1111-1119. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00806.x
Cvencek, D., Greenwald, A. G., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2011). Measuring implicit attitudes of 4-year-olds: The preschool implicit association test. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 109(2), 187-200. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.11.002
Cvencek, D., Greenwald, A. G., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2016). Implicit measures for preschool children confirm self-esteem's role in maintaining a balanced identity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 62, 50-57. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.09.015
Dumont, M., & Provost, M. A. (1999). Resilience in adolescents: Protective role of social support, coping strategies, self-esteem, and social activities on experience of stress and depression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28(3), 343-363. doi:10.1023/A:1021637011732
Fuchs-Beauchamp, K. (1996). Preschoolers' inferred self-esteem: The behavioral rating scale of presented self-esteem in young children. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 157(2), 204-210. doi:10.1080/00221325.1996.9914858
Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the implicit association test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(6), 1022-1038. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.79.6.1022
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464-1480. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
Herz, L., & Gullone, E. (1999). The relationship between self-esteem and parenting style: A cross-cultural comparison of australian and vietnamese australian adolescents. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30(6), 742-761. doi:10.1177/0022022199030006005
Hetts, J. J., Sakuma, M., & Pelham, B. W. (1999). Two roads to positive regard: Implicit and explicit self-evaluation and culture. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 512 –559
Hofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H., & Schmitt, M. (2005). A meta- analysis on the correlation between the implicit association test and explicit self-report measures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(10), 1369-1385. doi:10.1177/0146167205275613
Hughes, H. M. (1984). Measures of self-concept and self-esteem for children ages 3–12 years: A review and recommendations. Clinical Psychology Review, 4(6), 657-692. doi:10.1016/0272-7358(84)90011-4
Hughes, H. M., & Pugh, R. (1984). The behavior rating form-revised: A parent-report measure of children's self-esteem. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40(4), 1001-1005. doi:10.1002/1097 4679(198407)40:4<1001::AID-JCLP2270400422>3.0.CO;2-2
Jordan, C. H., Spencer, S. J., Zanna, M. P., Hoshino-Browne, E., & Correll, J. (2003). Secure and defensive high self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(5), 969-978. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.969
Kernis, M. H. (2003). Toward a conceptualization of optimal self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14(1), 1-26.
Li-Hua, Z., Li-Zhu, Y., & Fang, S. (2006). The Effect of Parental Rearing Style on Self-esteem of Children from 3 to 9 Years Old. Chinese Mental Health Journal.
Lloyd, C., & Miller, P. M. (1997). The relationship of parental style to depression and self-esteem in adulthood. The Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 185(11), 655-663. doi:10.1097/00005053-199711000-00001
Marsh, H. W. (1990). Causal ordering of academic self-concept and academic achievement: A multiwave, longitudinal panel analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(4), 646-656. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.82.4.646
Martínez, I., García, J. F., & Yubero, S. (2007). Parenting styles and adolescents' self-esteem in brazil. Psychological Reports, 100(3 Pt 1), 731. doi:10.2466/PR0.100.3.731-745
Milevsky, A., Schlechter, M., Netter, S., & Keehn, D. (2007). Maternal and paternal parenting styles in adolescents: Associations with self-esteem, depression and life-satisfaction. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16(1), 39-47. doi:10.1007/s10826-006-9066-5
Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2005). Understanding and using the implicit association test: II. method variables and construct validity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2), 166-180. doi:10.1177/0146167204271418
Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2007). The Implicit Association Test at Age 7: A Methodological and Conceptual Review. In J. A. Bargh, J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Social psychology and the unconscious: The automaticity of higher mental processes (pp. 265-292). New York, NY, US: Psychology Press.
Pelham, B. W., & Hetts, J. J. (1999). Implicit self-evaluation. Unpublished manuscript, State University of New York at Buffalo.
Rosenberg, M., & Pearlin, L. I. (1978). Social class and self-esteem among children and adults. American Journal of Sociology, 84(1), 53-77. doi:10.1086/226740
Spalding, L. R., & Hardin, C. D. (1999). Unconscious unease and self-handicapping: Behavioral consequences of individual differences in implicit and explicit self-esteem. Psychological Science, 10(6), 535-539. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00202
Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 193-210. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.193
Zeigler-Hill, V. (2006). Discrepancies Between Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem: Implications for Narcissism and Self-Esteem Instability. Journal of Personality, 74(1), 119-143. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00371.x
Published
Issue
Section
License
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
